The Great Migrations

The proportion of Neanderthal-derived DNA in present-day people outside Africa is estimated at 1.5-2.1%.

Prüfer K., Racimo F., Patterson N. et al. (2014). The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains. Nature 505, 43-49. doi:10.1038/nature12886

Bergström et al. (2020) cite the consensus view that modern humans expanded out of Africa and the Near East 50,000-70,000 years ago.

Bergström A., McCarthy S. A., Hui R. et al. (2020). Insights into human genetic variation and population history from 929 diverse genomes. Science 367(6484), eaay5012. doi:10.1126/science.aay5012

The two infants from the Upward Sun River site (Alaska) are dated to around 11,500 years ago.

Moreno-Mayar J. V., Potter B. A., Vinner L. et al. (2018). Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans. Nature 553, 203-207. doi:10.1038/nature25173

The Upward Sun River individual USR1 represents a distinct Ancient Beringian population.

Moreno-Mayar J. V., Potter B. A., Vinner L. et al. (2018). Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans. Nature 553, 203-207. doi:10.1038/nature25173

A single founding population of Native Americans split from East Asians around 36 ± 1.5 thousand years ago, with gene flow continuing until around 25 ± 1.1 thousand years ago; Ancient Beringians branched off around 22-18.1 thousand years ago.

Moreno-Mayar J. V., Potter B. A., Vinner L. et al. (2018). Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans. Nature 553, 203-207. doi:10.1038/nature25173

Human footprints at White Sands National Park (New Mexico) are bracketed by seed layers with calibrated ages between about 23,000 and 21,000 years.

Bennett M. R., Bustos D., Pigati J. S. et al. (2021). Evidence of humans in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum. Science 373(6562), 1528-1531. doi:10.1126/science.abg7586

Most present-day Europeans derive from at least three highly differentiated populations: West European hunter-gatherers, Ancient North Eurasians related to Upper Palaeolithic Siberians, and Early European Farmers of mainly Near Eastern origin.

Lazaridis I., Patterson N., Mittnik A. et al. (2014). Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans. Nature 513, 409-413. doi:10.1038/nature13673

Neolithic Anatolians were members of the population that was the source of Europe's first farmers.

Mathieson I., Lazaridis I., Rohland N. et al. (2015). Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians. Nature 528, 499-503. doi:10.1038/nature16152

Farming arrived in Europe around 8,500 years ago.

Mathieson I., Lazaridis I., Rohland N. et al. (2015). Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians. Nature 528, 499-503. doi:10.1038/nature16152

Western and Eastern Europe came into contact about 4,500 years ago; the Late Neolithic Corded Ware people from Germany traced about 75% of their ancestry to the Yamnaya.

Haak W., Lazaridis I., Patterson N. et al. (2015). Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe. Nature 522, 207-211. doi:10.1038/nature14317

The results support a steppe origin of at least some of the Indo-European languages of Europe.

Haak W., Lazaridis I., Patterson N. et al. (2015). Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe. Nature 522, 207-211. doi:10.1038/nature14317

Low-coverage genomes of 101 ancient humans show that the Bronze Age of Eurasia (around 3000-1000 BC) was a highly dynamic period involving large-scale population migrations and replacements.

Allentoft M. E., Sikora M., Sjögren K.-G. et al. (2015). Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia. Nature 522, 167-172. doi:10.1038/nature14507

Bantu-speaking peoples expanded about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago from western central Africa; the Bantu heartland is the Nigeria/Cameroon frontier.

Patin E., Lopez M., Grollemund R. et al. (2017). Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America. Science 356(6337), 543-546. doi:10.1126/science.aal1988

Early Bantu speakers first moved southward through the equatorial rainforest before spreading toward eastern and southern Africa.

Patin E., Lopez M., Grollemund R. et al. (2017). Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America. Science 356(6337), 543-546. doi:10.1126/science.aal1988

Language phylogenies place the Austronesian origin in Taiwan approximately 5,230 years ago.

Gray R. D., Drummond A. J., Greenhill S. J. (2009). Language phylogenies reveal expansion pulses and pauses in Pacific settlement. Science 323(5913), 479-483. doi:10.1126/science.1166858

Ancient individuals from Vanuatu (about 3,100-2,700 years before present) and Tonga (about 2,700-2,300 years before present) had little to no Papuan ancestry.

Skoglund P., Posth C., Sirak K. et al. (2016). Genomic insights into the peopling of the Southwest Pacific. Nature 538, 510-513. doi:10.1038/nature19844

Genome-wide data from 555 ancient individuals, including 359 from Slavic contexts, demonstrate large-scale population movement from Eastern Europe during the sixth to eighth centuries CE.

Gretzinger J., Biermann F., Mager H. et al. (2025). Ancient DNA connects large-scale migration with the spread of Slavs. Nature 646, 384-393. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6

This movement replaced more than 80% of the local gene pool in Eastern Germany, Poland and Croatia, with substantial regional heterogeneity and no sex-biased admixture.

Gretzinger J., Biermann F., Mager H. et al. (2025). Ancient DNA connects large-scale migration with the spread of Slavs. Nature 646, 384-393. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6